Chapter 10 Learning Log

What?

Key Terms

Social cognitive theory: Theoretical perspective that focuses on how people learn by observing others and how they eventually assume control over their own behavior

Model: Person who demonstrates a behavior for someone else.

Reciprocal causation: Interdependence of environmental, behavioral, and personal variables as these three factors influence learning and development

Self-regulation: Process of setting goals for oneself and engaging in behaviors and cognitive processes that lead to goal attainment.

Vicarious reinforcement: Phenomenon in which a response increases in frequency when another person is observed being reinforced for that response.

Vicarious punishment: Phenomenon in which a response decreases in frequency when another person is observed being punished for that response.

Incentive: Hoped-for but not guaranteed, future consequence of behavior.

Live model: Currently living individual whose behavior is observed in person.

Symbolic model: Real or fictional character in the media that influences an observer’s behavior.

Modeling: Demonstrating a behavior for another or observing and imitating another’s behavior.

Cognitive modeling: Demonstrating how to think about as well as how to do a task.

Observational learning effect: Acquisition of a new behavior after watching someone else do it.

Response facilitation effect: Increased frequency of a previously learned behavior after seeing someone else being reinforced for it.

Response inhibition effect: Decreased frequency of a previously  learned behavior after seeing someone else being punished for it.

Response disinhibition effect: Increased frequency of a previously forbidden or punished behavior after seeing someone else doing it without adverse consequences.

Self-efficacy: Belief that one is capable of excusing certain behaviors or reaching certain goals.

Resilient self-efficacy: Belief that one can perform a task successfully even after experiencing setbacks.

Collective self-efficacy: People’s beliefs about their ability to be successful when they work together on a task.

Self regulated behavior: Self-chosen behavior that leads to the fulfillment of personally chosen standards and goals.

Emotion regulation: Process of keeping in check or intentionally altering feelings that may lead to counterproductive behavior.

Self-instructions: Instructions that one gives oneself while performing a complex behavior.

Self-monitoring: Observing and recording one’s own behavior.

Self-evaluation: Judgment of one’s own performance or behavior.

Self-imposed contingency: Self-reinforcement or self-punishment that follows a behavior.

Self-regulated learning: Regulation of one’s own cognitive processes in order to learn successfully.

Co-regulated learning: Process through which an adult and child share responsibility for directing various aspects of the child’s learning.

Self-regulated problem solving: Use of self-directed strategies to address complex problems.

Peer mediation: Approach to conflict resolution in which a student (serving as a mediator) asks peers in conflict to express their differing viewpoints and then work together to identify an appropriate compromise.

Summary: Children learn a lot of their behaviors through watching others, siblings, peers, parents, etc. They learn by watching them do things and by seeing how that person is reinforced or punished for the behavior or succeeds or fails. They also adopt self-regulating standards often by modeling after others. Social cognitive theory emphasizes how people have control over their environment. They learn to self-regulate and control their own behavior and learn to set goals for themselves, monitor their own progress, and evaluate their results. People learn how to weigh their decisions and behavior on future consequences and usually perform behaviors that others model if they think that there will be benefit to them. 

So What?

I think that social cognitivism is a really important theory to know and understand not only as teachers but as adults and future parents or leaders in society. It is important to know how our own behavior affects those around us, especially children who look up to us to be an example. As teachers it is important to know how students perceive and learn from their environment because we are a big part of that environment and how we teach them and encourage them to learn, as well as how we treat them will have a huge impact on how they learn self-regulation and learn how to set goals for themselves and evaluate those goals. I also think that implementing self-efficacy in the classroom is so important because if the students don't believe they have the power and ability to succeed then they wont. So helping them realize that they are in control of so much more than most teenagers believe they are and empowering them, will help them in so many different aspects of their lives, with learning in the classroom only being one of those things. 

Now What?

I think that this theory is something that I have had to practice because I work with troubled teens. It is so important to be consistent with them and to  hold firm boundaries that they know and understand. It is important that if we as staff are not held to the same standards as the girls, then there is a logical explanation as to why. It isn't fair, for example, that the girls aren't allowed to swear but we as staff can whenever we want. The same thing needs to occur in the classroom. If there are rules that need to be followed, we as teachers need to follow those rules as well. We also need to hold consistent boundaries across the board with our students. It is important to not give students special treatment because you have a better relationship with them or because they are an athlete or anything else because it will confuse students as to what is expected of them if you hold them to a different standard than others and the things that they learn through vicarious learning could be things that you don't want them to develop as habit but could be your fault for them developing it by not being consistent with all your students. It is important as I mentioned above to teach the students self-efficacy but also self-regulated learning. It is important to get the students involved in their own learning and in wanting to learn. Social cognitivism should be used for learning as well as behavior and this can be done in different ways. For example by relating classroom learning tasks to students’ long-range personal and professional goals, describing and modeling effective cognitive strategies for reading, learning, and studying, assigning complex independent learning tasks, providing the necessary structure and guidance for students who are not yet self-regulated learner assigning homework and other tasks that require independent learning, providing concrete strategies for keeping track of how to learn and study effectively, and giving students opportunities to assess their own learning and compare their evaluations to your own. These strategies can help as we as teachers try to encourage the students to be active learners and involved in their own learning processes. 

Chapter 9 Learning Log

What?

Terms

Behaviorism: Theoretical perspective in which learning and behavior are described and explained in terms of stimulus-response relationships.

Conditioning: Term commonly used for learning.

Response: Specific behavior that an individual exhibits.

Stimulus: Specific object or event that influences an individual’s behavior.

Contiguity: Occurrence of two or more events at approximately the same time.

Classical conditioning: Form of learning in which a new involuntary response is acquired as a result of two stimuli being presented at the same time.

Unconditioned stimulus: Stimulus that elicits a particular response without prior learning.

Unconditioned response: Response that is elicited by a particular (unconditioned) stimulus without prior learning.

Neutral Stimulus: Stimulus that does not elicit any particular response.

Conditioned stimulus: Stimulus that begins to elicit a particular response through classical conditioning.

Conditioned response: Response that begins to be elicited by a particular (conditioned) stimulus through classical conditioning.

Generalization: Phenomenon in which a person learns a response to a particular stimulus and then makes the same response to a similar stimulus; in classical conditioning, involves making a conditioned response to a stimulus similar to a conditioned stimulus.

Extinction: Gradual disappearance of an acquired response; in classical conditioning, results from repeated presentation of a conditioned stimulus in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus.

Operant conditioning: Form of learning in which a response increases in frequency as a result of being followed by reinforcement.

Contingency: Situation in which one event happens only after another event has already occurred; one event is contingent on the other’s occurrence.

Reinforcer: Consequence of a response that leads to increased frequency of the response.

Reinforcement: Act of following a response with a reinforcer.

Primary reinforcer: Consequence that satisfies a biologically built-in need.

Secondary reinforcer: Consequence that becomes reinforcing over time through its association with another reinforcer.

Positive reinforcement: Consequence that brings about the increase of a behavior through the presentation (rather than the removal) of a stimulus.

Premack principle: Phenomenon in which learners do less-preferred activities in order to engage in more-preferred activities.

Extrinsic reinforcer: Reinforcer that comes from the outside environment, rather than from within the learner.

Intrinsic reinforcer: Reinfocer provided by the learner or inherent in the task being preformed.

Negative reinforcement: Consequence that brings about the increase of a behavior through the removal (rather than the presentation of) a stimulus.

Delay of gratification: Ability to forego small, immediate reinforcers to obtain larger ones later on.

Terminal behavior: form and frequency of a desired response that a teacher hopes to foster through operant conditioning.

Token economy: Technique in which desired behaviors are reinforced by tokens that learners can use to “purchase” a variety of other reinforcers.

Contingency contract: formal agreement between teacher and student that identifies behaviors the student will exhibit and the reinforcers that will follow.

Group contingency: Situation in which everyone in a group must make a particular response before reinforcement occurs.

Continuous reinforcement: Reinforcement of a response every time it occurs.

Extinction: In operant conditioning, gradual disappearance of an acquired response as a result of repeated lack of reinforcement.

Intermittent reinforcement: Reinforcement of a response only occasionally, with some occurrences of the response unreinforced.

Baseline: Frequency of a response before it is systematically reinforced.

Shaping: Process of reinforcing successively closer and closer approximations to a desired terminal behavior.

Antecedent stimulus: Stimulus that increases the likelihood that a certain other response will follow.

Cueing: Use of signals to indicate that a certain behavior is desired or that a certain behavior should stop.

Setting event: Complex environment condition in which a particular behavior is most likely to occur.

Generalization: In operant conditioning, phenomenon in which a person makes a voluntary response to a stimulus that is similar to one previously associated with a response-reinforcement contingency.

Discrimination: Phenomenon in which a student learns that a response is reinforced in the presence of one stimulus but not in the presence of another, similar stimulus.

Behavioral momentum: Increased tendency for a learner to make a particular response immediately after making similar responses.

Incompatible behaviors: Two or more behaviors that cannot be performed simultaneously.

Punishment: Consequence that decreases the frequency of the response it follows.

Presentation punishment: Punishment involving presentation of a new stimulus, presumably one a learner finds unpleasant.

Removal punishment: Punishment involving removal or an existing stimulus, presumably one a learner doesn’t want to lose.

Response cost: Loss either of a previously earned reinforcer or of an opportunity to obtain reinforcement.

Logical consequence: Consequence that follows naturally or logically from a student’s misbehavior.

Time-out: Form of punishment in which a student is placed in a dull, boring situation with no opportunity for reinforcement or social interaction.

In-school suspension: Form of punishment in which a student is placed in a quiet, boring room within the school building, typically to do schoolwork under close adult supervision.

Psychological punishment: Consequence that seriously threatens self-esteem.

Applied behavior analysis (ABA): Systematic application of behaviorist principles in educational and therapeutic settings.

Functional analysis: Examination of inappropriate behavior and its antecedents and consequences to determine functions that the behavior might serve for the learner.

Positive behavior support: Variation of traditional applied behavior analysis that involves identifying the purposes of undesirable behaviors and providing alternative behaviors that more appropriately accomplish those purposes.

Summary: We understand a lot about behavior and learning by looking at classical conditioning and the principles associated with it. By understanding how students are conditioned, we might better understand their behavior which will help us understand their individual learning and in our teaching. We can also understand what stimuli might be producing specific behaviors and if they are negative behaviors, we can change that stimulus to hopefully change the negative behavior. The same goes for positive behavior in that if you know certain stimulus produce positive behaviors, you can continually use that stimulus. It is important to know that while behaviorism gives us a lot of information on human learning and behavior, it is not all inclusive, so it is important to use this perspective with other perspectives to gain a fuller understanding of human learning and behavior. 

So What?

Behaviorism is important to know as a teacher because it is important to understand how behaviors are reinforced both positively and negatively. We as teachers need to get to know our students enough to know what is positively and negatively reinforcing to them because what might be a positive reinforcement to one student, might be a negative reinforcement to another and visa verse. It is important to understand how to positively reinforce our students so that we can increase positive behavior in the classroom and outside the classroom. As teachers we have a lot of influence in the children's lives that we teach, and it is important to know how to find ways to give positive reinforcement so students know when they are doing things that they should be doing but also be able to feel like someone notices when they are doing well. 

Now What?

While behaviorism is important and I think that everyone uses it in one way or another throughout their lives, especially when they play a leadership role, I think it is important to not go crazy with this theory and it's practices. I think that just trying to condition responses based purely on positive or negative consequences kind of robs students of the ability to think and decide for themselves what is appropriate and what they like to do or what works for them. There are obviously specific things that are appropriate or not in the school setting but it is important to not rely solely on this theory to shape children's behavior because they wont learn to think for themselves and their actions will always be externally based, either trying to be rewarded or trying to avoid punishment. 

Chapter 7 Learning Log

What

Reconstruction error: Construction of a logical but incorrect “memory” by combining information retrieved from long-term memory with one’s general knowledge and beliefs about the world.

Individual constructivism: Theoretical perspective that focuses on how people, as individuals, construct meaning from their experiences.

Social constructivism: Theoretical perspective that focuses on people’s collective efforts to impose meaning on the world.

Distributed cognition: A process in which learners think about an issue or problem together, sharing ideas and working together to draw conclusions or develop solutions.

Script: Schema that involves a predictable sequence of events related to a common activity.

Theory: Integrated set of concepts and principles developed to explain a particular phenomenon.

Worldview: General, culturally based assumptions about reality that influence understandings of a wide variety of phenomena.

Conceptual understanding: Meaningfully learned and well-integrated knowledge about a topic, including many logical connections among specific concepts and ideas.

Community of learners: Class in which teacher and students actively and collaboratively work to help one another learn.

Conceptual changes: Significant revision of an existing theory or belief of an existing theory or belief in such a way that new, discrepant information can be better understood and explained.

Confirmation bias: Tendency to seek information that confirms rather than discredits current beliefs

Summary: Students continually add to their understanding of the world around them in and out of the classroom. This is very individualized because each person develops their own views on the world around them. At the same time, each person develops these views and the views are molded considerably by their social and cultural environments. They learn things from their ancestors, their parents, their teachers, and their peers, which help them construct their views of the world around them. Each student is unique in how the see and interpret the world around them.

So What?

This information in important to know as teachers because it helps us learn and understand what strategies are appropriate in teaching our students. There are misconceptions about what students know or believe and it is important to know what the misconceptions are so they don’t interfere with our teaching. There are many things that young students might believe about the world that are not correct and it is important to know how to show them that what they believe might be incorrect instead of just tell or teach them about it. By understanding how students construct information, it can help us teach them in a way that they will be able to apply what they are learning to real life which should be one of the goals of any teacher in any subject.

Now What?

As a future teacher it is important to know how students learn and comprehend things. I think that I will try to understand how my students gain their views on the world and by doing this, will be able to better understand not only why they learn or believe the things they do but also, understand them better as a person. I believe that relationships are the key to having success in most things in life and knowing how my students might construct their view on the world will help me in my relationships with them. I think that it is important for students to understand why and how things happen. This will help with misconceptions and with the students accepting new information. The 5 E's wold help with this.

I would have a lesson on the Stanford prison study and talk about the theory of cognitive dissonance and be able to critically analyze situations using this theory.

Engage: I ask the students if they thought that they would ever teat someone else, a peer in an inhumane way, just because they could.

Explore: I would have the students discuss the question and have them explore different situations where they might for some reason treat someone else inhumanely.

Explain: I would then show the Stanford prison study and we would analyze why the guards fell into an authoritarian role and the guards fell into a passive role, allowing the guards to treat them inhumanely.

Elaborate: We would then talk about how people build morals and how those morals change when their environment changes and we would talk about other situations when people have changed their morals because of a specific situation that they were placed in.

Evaluate: Have the students have the students write down an example of when someone did something morally wrong because of an authority figure or situation they were in that they wouldn’t normally have done in every day life. Connect to theory of cognitive dissonance.